A survey of 158 Greek constitutions, of which only the Athenian survives. Rediscovered on a papyrus in Egypt in 1890, it is the most detailed ancient account of how Athenian democracy actually worked — its institutions, courts, and officials.
Start ReadingThe earliest Athenian constitution. The Eupatrid aristocracy, the archonship, and the Areopagus. The structure before Solon.
The crisis before Solon. Debt slavery, the concentration of land, and the oppression of the poor by the rich.
Draco's legislation. The first written laws of Athens. The famous severity of his punishments.
Solon's reforms begin. The seisachtheia — the shaking off of burdens. Debt slavery is abolished.
Solon's constitutional reforms. The four property classes. Access to office based on wealth, not birth.
Solon's laws in detail. Inheritance, citizenship, public interest lawsuits, and the reform of weights and measures.
The crisis after Solon. Faction fighting between the Plain, the Coast, and the Hill. The ground is prepared for tyranny.
Peisistratus' first attempt at tyranny. He wounds himself, gets a bodyguard, and seizes the Acropolis.
Peisistratus' second attempt: a woman dressed as Athena rides into Athens on a chariot. The people are fooled.
Peisistratus' third and final seizure of power. He rules well — governing according to the laws and keeping the peace.
The Peisistratid tyranny under Hippias and Hipparchus. The tyrants as patrons of culture and religion.
The assassination of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogeiton. The tyranny hardens under Hippias.
The fall of the Peisistratids. Spartan intervention, the siege of the Acropolis, and the expulsion of Hippias.
Cleisthenes' reforms. The creation of the ten tribes, the demes, and the Council of Five Hundred. Athenian democracy is born.
The structure of Cleisthenes' constitution. The trittyes, the rotation of tribal representation, and the new military organisation.
The early years of democracy. Ostracism — the institution designed to prevent tyranny by exiling the most powerful citizen.
The Persian Wars and their constitutional aftermath. The growth of Athenian confidence and the expansion of democratic power.
Ephialtes' revolution (462/1 BC). The powers of the Areopagus are stripped away and given to the Assembly, the Council, and the courts.
Pericles and the radical democracy. Pay for jury service, the restriction of citizenship, and the building programme.
The development of Athenian democracy from Solon to Pericles summarised. Each reform expanded the power of the people.
The oligarchic revolution of 411 BC. The Four Hundred seize power during the crisis of the Sicilian disaster.
The constitution of the Five Thousand. A moderate oligarchy replaces the Four Hundred. Aristotle calls this the best government Athens ever had.
The restoration of democracy after 411 and the final years of the Peloponnesian War.
The Thirty Tyrants (404/3 BC). Critias and the oligarchs seize power after Athens' defeat. A reign of terror follows.
The resistance at Phyle and Piraeus. Thrasybulus leads the democratic counter-revolution.
The restoration of democracy (403 BC). The amnesty decree: no citizen shall bear a grudge for what happened under the Thirty.
The settled constitution of the fourth century begins here. Aristotle describes the working democracy of his own time.
Citizenship. How citizens are enrolled, how the registers are kept, and the training of ephebes (young citizens).
The ephebes' training continued. Two years of military service, frontier patrol, and civic education.
The Council of Five Hundred. How it is chosen by lot, how it meets, and what it does.
The Council's administrative duties: supervision of the fleet, public buildings, and state finances.
The prytaneis — the standing committee of the Council. Fifty members serve for one-tenth of the year.
The Assembly (Ecclesia). How it is summoned, what it discusses, and how votes are taken.
The agenda of the Assembly. Regular meetings and extraordinary sessions. The procedure for proposing and debating laws.
The election and allotment of magistrates. Some offices are elected (generals, financial officers); most are chosen by lot.
The nine archons. Their qualifications, their examination (dokimasia), and their duties.
The duties of the archon eponymous: orphans, heiresses, festivals, and the tragic competitions.
The King Archon: religious duties, sacrifices, the Eleusinian Mysteries, and trials for impiety.
The Polemarch: funeral rites for the war dead, religious festivals, and jurisdiction over cases involving metics.
The Thesmothetae: their judicial duties, the review of laws, and the prosecution of unconstitutional proposals.
The Eleven — the police magistrates who oversee the prison, arrest wrongdoers, and execute condemned criminals.
Minor magistrates: the market supervisors, the grain inspectors, and the weights-and-measures inspectors.
Financial officers: the Treasurers of Athena, the Receivers, the Auditors. How Athens manages its money.
More financial administration: the sales of confiscated property, the management of sacred funds, and the accountability of magistrates.
Military officers: the ten generals (strategoi), the cavalry commanders, and the tribal taxiarchs.
The allotment machines (kleroterion) and the mechanical process for selecting jurors. Aristotle describes the device in detail.
Jury pay and the organisation of the law courts. How many jurors serve, how they are assigned, and what they are paid.
The procedure of a trial. Prosecution, defence, voting, and sentencing. The water clock (klepsydra) times the speeches.
The voting procedure. Secret ballot with bronze discs. Hollow for guilty, solid for acquittal. The verdict is counted publicly.
Sentencing. In assessed cases, both prosecution and defence propose penalties. The jury chooses between them.
Special procedures: summary jurisdiction, impeachment (eisangelia), and the prosecution of unconstitutional proposals (graphe paranomon).
Arbitration (diaita). Public arbitrators hear cases before they reach the courts. Their decisions can be appealed.
Maritime cases and commercial disputes. Special courts with accelerated procedures for trade-related litigation.
Homicide cases and the jurisdiction of the Areopagus. The oldest court in Athens retains authority over cases of premeditated murder.
Other homicide courts: the Palladion (unintentional killing), the Delphinion (justifiable homicide), and the court at Phreatto (killers in exile).
The examination of magistrates (dokimasia) and the audit (euthynai). Every official must account for his conduct of office.
The accountability of officials continued. Procedures for accusations of corruption, theft, and incompetence.
State pay: for assembly attendance, jury service, and office-holding. Democracy costs money, and Athens pays it.
The festival calendar and religious duties of the state. Public sacrifices, processions, and the financing of dramatic competitions.
The management of the Athenian navy: the trierarchs, the dockyards, and the equipment of triremes.
Public works and building projects. How Athens commissions and supervises the construction of temples, walls, and civic buildings.
The welfare system. Payments to disabled citizens, war orphans, and others maintained at public expense.
Revenue sources: the silver mines, customs duties, court fines, and the tribute of allies.
Interstate relations: treaties, embassies, and the procedure for declaring war and making peace.
Religious regulations and the calendar of sacrifices. The intersection of civic and sacred life.
Citizenship disputes and the procedure for challenging someone's right to vote.
The metics (resident aliens): their rights, obligations, and the patron (prostates) system.
Slaves in Athens: legal status, manumission, and the limited protections afforded to enslaved persons.
Concluding observations on the Athenian constitution. Aristotle reflects on its strengths, weaknesses, and the balance between popular sovereignty and institutional stability.